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American English SpellingGeneral IndexIn addition to regular topics and authors, this index lists references to sounds (enclosed in
virgules), letters and spellings (italicized), bound elements (prefixes, bound bases, suffixes) and
particles (also all italicized). It also lists sets that contain at least one bound form (the bound form
being cited first). Alphabetically, short sounds come first (for instance, /a/), followed in order by
short sounds with diacritics (/ä/), long sounds (/a/), 1etters (a), and bound elements in the order bases, prefixes (a-),
suffixes (-a), and particles. Schwa, / For æ (ash), ð (edh), þ (thorn), wen, and yogh, see Runes. For IPA equivalents of the sound symbols used here, see pages xxxi-xxxii. For the IPA low back vowel sounds , see pages 204-5.
a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | j | k | l | m | n | o | p | q | r | s | t | u | v | w | x | y | z A/a/, 203, 213, 231; = a, 214-15; = ah, 216; = ai, 215, 216; = au, 215-16; history of, 213; shortened VCV and, 214-15; spellings of, 214-16; VC# and, 214; VCC and, 214 /ä/, 203, 204-6, 213, 231; = a, 232-33; = ah, 235; = e, 235; = o, 233-35; = ow, 235;
shortened VCV and, 234-35; spellings of, 232-35; v and, 234; VC# and, 233, 234; VCC and, 233.
See also / /a/, 53, 203; = a, 251-52; = ae, 257; = ai, 252-54; = aigh, 255; = ao, 257; = au, 257; = ay, 252-54; = e, 256; = ea, 256; = ee, 256; = ei, 254-55; = eigh, 255; = et, 256; = ey, 254, 255; history of, 249-51; persistent, 103-4; spellings of, 251-57; VCC and, 103-4; in VClV and VCrV, 251-52; VCV and, 251, 253-54; V.V and, 252, 254 a, 136-37, 207, 211, 212. See also /a/; /ä/; /a/; / a- (assimilation of ab-), 196, 197 a- (assimilation of ad-), 190-91 a- (Old English), 111, 192 a- (privative), 110, 191 -a, 64 aa, 81 AarslefI, Hans, 97 ab-, 70, 177, 191, 196-97 -abil +, 46-47 -able, 40, 46-47, 156-57, 273 abs-, 196 ac-, 188-89, 356, 360, 372 -ac, 364 Accepted spellings, 27-29 Accessibility, 29, 32, 37, 49, 50-52, 124-25, 212 acci +. See [acu+, acci+] -aceae, 270 -acean, 251, 412 -aceous, 251, 412 -acious, 251 [acu+, acci+], 192 ad-, 44-45, 50-51, 77-78, 177, 183, 188-93, 332, 336, 349, 354, 356, 360, 372, 383, 404, 418, 433, 446, 453 Adaption, and adoption, 17-20. See also Folk etymology; Integration; Periphery vs. center Addition. See Duplicative addition; Simple addition ae, 94. See also /a/; /e/; /e/ -ae, 269 aegi-, 270 aego-, 270 aer: See /âr/ af-, 188, 383 Affricates, 407, 421. See also /ch/, /j/ ag-, 188, 354 -age, 232, 420 agh. See /e/ ah. See /a/; /ä/; /e/ ai. See /a/; /a/; /e/; /i/ aigh. See /a/ air. See /âr/ -aire, 6 Akmajian, Adrian, et al., 338 al-, 188, 446 -al, 15, 34, 59, 138 A1brow, K. H., xxv, 4, 17 all, word-final, in monosyllables, 442-43 Alphabet, 207-9. See also Consonant letters; Runes; Vowel letters American Heritage Word Frequency Book, xxviii an- (assimilation of ad-), 188, 433 ana-, 64 Analogy, 10-12, 25, 50-51, 83, 104, 109, 139-41, 150, 153, 159-60, 180, 181, 184, 187, 190, 191-92, 210, 225, 226, 274, 275, 360, 370, 387, 444, 446. See also Conservative analogy -ance, 434 -ancy, 434 Anderson, John. See Lass, Roger -ane, 251 ann+, 432 -ant, 434 antenn+, 432 anti-, 262, 263 Antiadaption. See Dis-integration ao. See /a/; /a aou. See /a ap-, 188, 336 /âr/ field, 27, 204, 454; = aer, 311; = air, 311; = ar, 308-9, 311; = arr, 309-10; = ear, 311; = eir, 311; = er, 310-11; = err, 310; spellings of, 308-11; = ur, 311 ar, See /âr/; /ôr/ ar-, 188, 453 arch +, 357 +arch, 64, 357 archa +, 357 -ard, 394 Aristotle, 16 Aronoff, Mark, xxvi, 51, 54, 56 arr. See /âr/ [arr+, err], 192 Artin, Edward, 205 -ary, 262, 263 as- (assimilation of ad-), 188, 404 as- (assimilation of ex-), 404 Ash. See Runes Ashby, W. Ross, 9 Assimilation, 44-45, 49, 50-51, 57, 73, 75, 100, 177-98; /b/ and, 332; /d/ and, 341; /f/ and, 383; full, 178, 181, 182, 183-84, 185, 186, 188, 193, 195, 198, 328, 332, 336, 341, 354, 356, 372, 383, 397-98, 404, 428, 433, 446,453; /g/ and, 354; /k/ and, 356, 360; /l/ and, 442, 446; /m/ and, 428; /n/ and, 433; /p/ and, 336; partial, 178, 179, 182, 184,185,186,189-91,193-94,195-97,198; /r/ and, 450, 453; /s/ and, 400, 404; /t/ and, 349; /z/ and, 393, See also ab-; ad-; com-; dis-; en-; ex-; in-; ob-; sub-; syn- -ast, 64 at-, 188, 349 -ate, 15, 151-52, 251 -atic, 116 -ation, 34, 119, 251 -ative, 251 [att+, apt], 192-93 /a au. See /a/; /a/; /a aue. See /a aur. See /ô/ aw, 212. See also / ay. See /a/; /e/; /e/; /i/ B/b/, 206, 327; = b, 328-31, 333; = bb, 327- 30, 332-33; = bd, 339; in clusters and concatenations, 329, 331; at complex boundaries, 328, 329, 332; after long vowels, 329, 331; = ph, 328; after reduced vowels, 329, 330, 333; after short vowels, 329-30, 332-33; shortening rules and, 329, 330; at simple boundaries, 329, 330; spellings of, 328-33; after vowel digraphs, 329, 331 b, 207; silent, 328. See also /b/ Baker, R. G. See Smith, Philip Ball, Alice Morton, 73 Bases, 32-33, 35; nonterminative, 82, 170-72 Bauer, Laurie, 112 Bazell, Charles, 207 bb, 76. See also /b/ bd, 328. See also /d/ bi-, 34 Bilabial stops, 178, 186, 327. See also /b/; /p/ Bissex, G. L., 17 Black, Max, 10 Bloomfield, Leonard, 16 Bolinger, Dwight, 17, 23 Bound elements, 32-33, 36 Boundaries, in explication, 56-63. See also Complex boundaries; Simple boundaries; Syllables Bowman, Wayne, 25 Bradley, Henry, 17, 42 Brengelman, Fred, 4, 8, 12, 20, 53, 103-4, 145, 146, 155, 171, 462 bt, 328. See also /t/ buccan +, 317 +buke, 363 Cc, 93, 207; soft and hard, 70, 146-47, 185- 86, 355, 361-65, 370, 405. See also /ch/; /k/; /s/; /sh/ caffe +, 153 Campbell, A., 97, 207, 208 [cancell +, cancel], 171 cata-, 65 Caxton, William, 209-10, 352, 408, 417 cc, 76, 397. See also /ch/; /k/ cch. See /k/ Cedilla, 405 +ceit, 267 [+ceive, +cept], 44-45, 56, 267 +cess, 402 /ch/, 206, 209, 407; = c, 412; = cc, 412; = ch, 71, 412-15; in clusters and concatenations, 413, 414-15; palatalized spelling of, 412, 415-17; after reduced vowels, 413, 415; = s, 412; vs. /sh/, 410-11, 412, 415-16; after short vowels, 413-14, 415; shortening rules and, 413, 414; at simple boundaries, 413-14; spellings of, 412-17; = t, 412, 415-17; = tch, 412-14, 415; = tsch, 412; after vowel digraphs, 413, 415 ch, 71, 110,212. See also /ch/; /k/; /sh/ [chancell +, chancel], 17l Chancery English, 14 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 13, 14 Chaytor, H. J., 21 Checked vowels. See Vowel sounds chlor+, 358 chm. See /m/ Chomsky, Carol, xxv, 4 Chomsky, Noam, and Morris Halle, xxv, 4, 30, 52, 131, 211, 409 chor+, 358 +chron, 358 chrys +, 358 cht. See /t/ chth. See /th/ ck, 9, 72, 76, 210. See also /k/ Clanchy, M. T., 21 Clipping, 36, 61, 282 Closed syllables. See Vowel lengthening and shortening cn. See /n/ co-, 178, 179 Code, in orthography: and environment, 5-9; and performance,. 4-9, 22, 139 Coelements. See Sets and coforms Coforms. See Sets and coforms col-, 177, 178, 446 com-, 28, 34, 177, 178-81, 311, 428, 433, 446, 453 Complex boundaries, 329. See also Assimi1ation; Duplicative addition; Twinning Rule; and individual consonant sounds Complex long u. See /yu/ Complex words, 12, 86-87 Compound words, 12, 56-57, 73, 75, 80, 87, 164-65, 332, 336, 341, 349, 354, 383, 428, 453 con-, 177, 178, 179, 181, 433 Concatenations. See Consonant concatenations Connate groups, 45-46 Conservative analogy, 11-12, 75, 80, 96, 104, 112, 118, 121, 122, 124, 135-36, 139- 41, 155, 159-60, 162, 173, 174, 194, 220, 276, 278, 353, 411, 425, 429, 431; Third Syllable Rule and, 139-41; twinning and, 173. See also Analogy Consonant clusters, 71, 72, 74-75, 210; cumulations, 72; doublet equivalents, 72; doublets, 72, 76-77, 210, 363; simplifications, 55, 72; tight, 74, 331, 336, 340, 348, 353, 362-63, 366-67, 370-72, 382, 385-86, 402, 406, 414-15, 419, 427-28, 433, 445, 452-53. See also Doublet constraint; Final doublet constraints; Initial Doublet Rule; Mixed Voicing Rule; Triplet Rule Consonant concatenations, 71, 73, 75-76, 210. See also Doublet constraint; Mixed Voicing Rule; Triplet Rule Consonant digraphs, 71-72, 163, 209-10 Consonant letters, 210-12. See also Alphabet; Consonant digraphs Consonant sequence rules, 71-80, 89 Consonant sounds, American English, 206, 210-12; voiceless vs. voiced, 73-74; vs. vowel sounds See also Vowel sounds Content. See Meaning and content Continental i, 91, 104, 152, 262, 271 Contractions, 373 Convergence, 48, 149, 153, 159-60, 192, 194, 222, 249-51, 258-59, 280-81, 285, 308, 321-26, 350, 355-56, 431, 444, 446. See also Analogy; Mixed convergence; /ur/ convergence Cooper, Christopher, 145 Coote, Edmund, 145 cor-, 177, 178, 311, 453 [corall+, coral], 171 Correctness, 25-26, 27-29 Correspondences, sound and spelling, 10, 14-17, 22-24, 26-27, 31. See also individual sounds coun-, 179 cq. See /k/ cqu. See /k/ Craigie, William, 14, 20, 87 crotch +, 414 [crumm+, crumb], 424 [crystall +, crystal], 171 cs. See /ks/; /s/ ct, 72. See also /t/ cten +, 345 Cumulations. See Consonant clusters D/d/, 206, 327-28, 337-38; = bd, 339; = d, 327-28, 337, 339-41, 342; = dd, 327-28, 337, 341-42; = ddh, 339; = dh, 339; = ed, 338; = ld, 338-39; in clusters and concatenations, 340; at complex boundaries, 341; after long vowels, 341; after reduced vowels, 342; after short vowels, 340, 341-42; shortening rules and, 340; at simple boundaries, 339-40; spellings of, 338-42; after vowel digraphs, 340 d, 207; flapped, 338. See also /d/; /j/ Daneš, Frantisek, 6 [dazz+, daze], 150 dd, 76. See also /d/ ddh. See /d/ de-, 15, 194, 262 Demands, in orthography, 4, 5-9, 12-13, 29-31, 51, 162, 461-62 demi-, 263 Dental stops, 327. See also /d/; /t/ Dentals, before / Derivational suffixes. See Suffixes De-stressing. See Stress Dewey, Godfrey, xxviii-xxix dg, 72, 210. See also /j/ dge, 76. See also dg dh. See /d/ di- (assimilation of dis-), 193-94 Dialects, 13-14, 23-24, 40, 201-3 dif-, 193, 383 Digraphs. See Consonant digraphs; and individual vowel digraphs and individual consonants Diphthongs, 53, 250, 301-6 dis-, 78, 177, 193-94, 383 Dis-integration, in orthography, 17-18, 20, 103, 334. See also Integration Dissimilation, 334; and lost /r/'s, 449 Distribution rules, 82-87. See also Final s Rule; Final z Rule; Short Word Rule; y-to-i tactics Disyllables, iambic and trochaic, 123-24 Dixon, Robert, 4 dj. See /j/ Dobson, E. J., xxix, 204, 213, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 228, 229, 230, 235, 239, 240, 241, 243, 307, 322, 339, 351, 360, 376, 380, 381, 388, 389, 399, 410, 417, 424, 425, 426, 430, 435, 440, 457, 458 Dolby, J. L., and H. L. Resnikoff, 123, 316, 451 Doublet consonants. See Consonant clusters Doublet constraint, in consonant clusters and concatenations, 77-79, 180-81, 184, 189, 194, 331, 340, 348, 354. See also Mixed Voicing Rule Doublet equivalents. See Consonant clusters dt. See /t/ [duell +, duel], 172 Duplicative addition, 100, 328, 332, 336, 341, 349, 354, 383, 393, 400, 403, 428, 433-34, 442, 446, 450, 453 dvi+, 340 /dw/, 74 dwo+ (Indo-European root), 346 /dz/, 74 E/e/, 203; = ae, 221; = ai, 220; = ay, 220; = e, 217-19; = ea, 219-20; = ei, 220-2;; = eo, 221; history of, 217, 219, 220-21; = ie, 220; shortened VCV and, 218-19; spellings of, 217-21; = u, 221; VC# and, 218; VCC and, 217-18; word-final, 220 /e/, 203, 211; = ae, 268-70; = agh, 270; = ah, 270; = ay, 270; = e, 260-62; = ea, 264-67; = ee, 264-67; = ei, 267-68; = eo, 270; = ey, 268; history of, 258-59; = i, 91, 104, 152, 262-64; vs. /i/, 91; = ie, 267-68; = oe, 268-70; spellings of, 260-70; VC# and, 261, 264; VCC and, 262,264; VCrV and, 261; VCV and, 260, 263,264; V.V and, 260-61, 262, 263, 264; = y, 262 / / e, 136-37, 207, 211, 212. See also /ä/; /a/; /e/; /e/; /i/; /y/ e- (assimilated form of ex-), 181,182 e+ (initial particle), 48-49 ea. See /a/; /e/; /e/; /i/ -ean ,260 ear. See /âr/; /ê/; /ô/; /ur/ eau. See /o/; /yu/ ec-, 182, 368, 372 Ecriture, 22 -ed (noun suffix), 40 -ed (verb suffix), 7, 33, 34, 40, 61, 166, 338, 343 Edh. See Runes ee, 81, 94, 157-58. See also /a/; /e/; /i/ -ee, 94 eer; See /ê/ -eer; 317, 318 ef-, 181, 383 -efy, 276 ei. See /a/; /e/; /i/; /i/ eigh. See /a/ eir: See /âr/ Element boundaries. See Boundaries; Complex boundaries; Merging Elements, 32-39; bound, 32-33, 36; free, 32-33, 36; vs.. morphemes, 33; nonterminative, 32-33, 37-39, 46-47, 170-72; syllables and, 59-60; terminative, 32-33, 37-39. See also Bases; Particles; Prefixes; Sets and coforms; Suffixes em-, 187-88 Emery, Donald, 25, 27, 166, 168, 440, 441, 450 en-, 177, 187-88 -ence, 49, 59, 434 -ency, 434 English alphabet. See Alphabet enn+, 432 -ent, 59, 434 Environment, and code, in orthography, 5-9 eo. See /e/; /e/; /o/ -eous, 260 /êr/ field, 204, 315, 454; = aer; 318; = ear; 313, 317; = eer; 313, 317; = eir; 318; = er; 316; = ier; 313, 318; = ir; 316, 318; = irr; 316; spellings of, 316-18; = yr; 318 er. See /âr/; /êr/; /ur/ -er (agent suffix), 40, 54, 60, 166, 171, 318. See also -our -er (comparative), 34, 60, 167 err. See /âr/ -ery, 141 -es. See [-s, -es] -esce, 398 -ess, 405 -est, 34, 167 et. See /a/ -et, 347 -etic, 116 -ette, 347, 348 -ety, 81, 273 Etymological analysis. See Explication Etymological demand, l2-13, 17-20, 47, 51, 461, 462 eu, 459. See also / -eum, 260 Euphonic e. See e+ eur. See /ur/; / Evans, John, 145 ew, 212. See also /o/; /u/; /yu/ ex-, 49, 177, 181-83, 192, 368, 372, 383, 390, 404 [excell +, excel], 171 Explicata, immediate vs, mediate, 44-45 Explication, 28, 32-66, 462; accessibility in, 32, 37, 51-52; boundaries in, 56-63; elements in, 32-33; vs. etymological analysis, 50-51; vs. generative grammar, 51-52; mediate and immediate explicata, 44-45; particles in, 33, 47-49; vs. phonological analysis, 52-55; primes in, 36-37; processes in, 32; semantic relationships in, 55-56; sets and, 39-47; spelling act and, 49-50; summarized, 66 extra-, 371 F/f/, 180, 206, 374-75; in clusters and concatenations, 378-80, 382; at complex boundaries, 380, 383; = f, 377-78, 380, 381-82, 384; = ff, 377, 380, 381, 383-84; = ft, 378, 380; = gh, 274, 378, 379-80; history of, 377-78; = lf; 72, 378, 380; after long vowels, 380, 382; = ph, 20, 210, 377-79; = pph, 379; after reduced vowels, 380, 384; after short vowels, 380-81, 382-84; shortening rules and, 380, 382; at simple boundaries, 378-79, 380, 381; spellings of, 378-84; vs. /v/, 374-75; after vowel digraphs, 380, 382; word-final, 380, 38] f, 93, 207. See also /f/, /v/ fac+, 46 far+, 46 feas+, 46 +fect, 46 Feedback, positive and negative, 5-9, 22, 40 +feit, 46, 229 +fet; 56, 168-70, 323 fet+, 46 fett+, 46 +fex, 46 ff; 76. See also /f/ ffe, 76, 381 fg, 75 [+fic, +fy], 46 +fice, 46 Final doublet constraints, 38, 76-77 Final e, 145-60; deletion of, 26, 28, 38, 70, 154-60; fossil, 148-54, 253-54, 381, 401, 415, 431, 432, 444; functions of, 96-97, 103-4, 145-54; history of, 99, 103-4; insulating, 147-48, 238, 253, 290, 394-95; long vowels and (See VCV); soft c and g and, 70, 146-47, 155-56, 238, 406; Short Word Rule and, 88-89, 148; in VCV, 145, 148-49, 151-54; in Ve#, 145; voiced th and, 147, 386; in word-final le, 149-51 Final s Rule, 82-83, 148 Final z Rule, 83-84, 148, 392 Fisher, John, 14, 207 +fit, 46 fl, 74 [flamm+, flame], 427 Flap Rule, 338 Flapped d, 338 Flapped t, 342-43 [flocc+, flock], 172 fluor+, 321 Folk etymology, 18-19, 51, 60, 192, 274, 343, 387, 429 Fossils: n's in French adoptions, 6-7. See also Final e Fowler, H. W., 268-69, 390 /fr/, 74 Free elements. See Elements Free vowels. See Vowel sounds French fossil e's. See Final e Fricatives, before /u/, 298. See also Palatal sibilants; Simple fricatives Front stops, 327-49. See also /b/; /d/; /p/; /t/ ft, 74. See also /f/ /fth/, 334 -ful(l), 77, 79, 243, 383, 441 Full assimilation. See Assimilation G/g/, 206, 207, 350; = ckg, 352; in clusters and concatenations, 353-54; at complex boundaries, 354; = g, 350, 352-54, 355, 436; = gg, 350, 35l, 352, 354-55; = gh, 209-10, 350, 352; = gu, 350-51; before le, 355; after long vowels, 354; after reduced vowels, 355; after short vowels, 353, 354-55; shortening rules and, 353; at simple boundaries, 352; spellings of, 350-55; = tg, 352; after vowel digraphs, 354; = x, 350, 351-52 g, 207; soft and hard, 146-47, 350-51, 353, 417. See also /g/; /j/; /zh/ Gelb, I.J., 207 [gemm +, gem], 171 Generative grammar. See Exp1ication geo-, 260 Gestalt psychology, 29-30, 31, 461 gg, 72, 76, 351, 417-18. See also /g/; /j/ gh, 71,102, 111, 209-10, 212, 239-40, 247-48, 255, 271, 274, 286, 294, 345-46, 352, 378. See also /a/; /e/; /f/; /g/; /i/; /k/ /o/; /t/; Velar fricative ght, 102, 237, 239-40, 274. See also /t/ Glides, 411, 415, 416, 431, 457, 459-60 [glatt+, +glot] , 171 gm. See /m/ gn, 15, 20, 72, 103, 180, 275, 299. See also /n/ Goody, Jack, 17, 22, 462 Gould, Stephen Jay, 7-8 [gramm +, gram], 174, 427 Grammatical content. See Meaning and content Graphemes, 207 Graphotactics, 69. See also Tactics and tactical rules Great Vowel Shift, 213, 219, 247, 249, 256, 259, 271, 280, 288, 292 Grimm, Jacob, 97 gu, 350-51 Gumb, Raymond, 10 /gw/, = gu, 351, 457 [gymn+, gymnasi+, gym], 63-64 H/h/, 23, 206; a vs. an before, 390; in clusters, 386; = h, 386-87, 388-89; spellings of, 386-90; = wh, 71-72, 387-88, 389. See also /hw/ h, 62, 178, 207, 211, 212, 343-44, 389-90. See also /h/; /hw/ Haas, W., 207 Halle, Morris. See Chomsky, Noam Hanna, Paul R., Jean S. Hanna, R. E. Hodges, and Erwin H. Rudorf, Jr., xxviii, 4, 214, 217, 223, 231, 241, 244, 251, 260, 272, 281, 284, 289, 299, 302, 303, 316, 327, 328, 337, 342, 350, 356, 376, 380, 384, 386, 391, 396, 397,400, 405, 407, 412, 417, 426, 429, 437, 439, 447-48, 456 Hard c. See c Hard g. See g Hart, John, 3 hatch +, 414 Havelock, Eric, 17, 461, 462 Head vowels, 90 Heller, Louis, and James Macris, 23 hier+, 319 High short o. See / High short u. See / Hodges, Richard (l7th c.), 104 Hodges, Richard (20th c.), 4. See also Hanna Holdouts, 4, 10, 30-31; to /a/ = a correspondence, 215-16; to assimilation of ad-, 189-91; to
assimilation of com-, 180-81; to assimilation of ex-, 182; to assimilation of syn-, 198; to doublet
constraint, 78-80; to final e deletion, 156-57, 158-59; to Final s Rule, 82-83; to Final z Rule, 84;
to Initial Doublet Rule, 76; to Mixed Voicing Rule, 75-76; to oi vs. oy distribution, 302-3; to
Short Word Rule, 89; to soft g, 146-47; to Stress Frontshift Rule, 129-30; to Suffix -ic Rule,
116-18; to Suffix -id Rule, 120-21; to Suffix -ion Rule, 119; to Suffix -ish2 Rule;
122; to Suffix -it Rule, 120; to Suffix -ity Rule, 114; to Suffix Holmberg, Borje, 213 homeo-, 260 -hood, 242 [horr+, +hor], 172 Householder, Fred, 11, 17, 23 hu, = /w/, 456 Hultzen, Lee, 72 /hw/, 23, 458; = wh, 71-72, 388-89 hydr+, 47-48 Hyphens, 77, 78, 165, 179, 383 I/i/, 203; = a, 151-52; = ai, 279; = e, 222, 228; = ea, 229; = ee, 229; = ei, 229; history of, 222; = i, 152-53, 154, 222, 223-26; = ie, 229; = o, 228; in shortened VCV, 224-25, 227; spellings of, 223-30; stressed and unstressed, 151-53, 154, 222-23; = u, 228-29; = ui, 229-30; v and, 224; in VC#, 224, 227; in VCC, 223, 226-27; = y, 84-85, 222, 226-27 /i/, 203; = ai, 279; = ay, 279; = ei, 278; = eigh, 278; = ey, 279; history of, 271-72; = i, 152-53, 154, 272-76; = ie, 278; = oy, 279; spellings of, 272-79; = uy, 279; in VCC, 271, 275, 277-78; in VClV and VCrV, 274-75, 277; in VCV, 272, 276-77; in Ve#, 273; in V.V, 272-73, 277; = y, 85, 276-78 i, 16, 20, 118-19, 136, 207, 208, 459-60; j and, 207, 208, 417; before suffixes, 47, 57-59, 132; vowel and consonant, 208; y and, 58, 84-87, 207, 208, 271-72. See also Continental i; /e/; /i/; /y/: y-to-i tactics -i, 81, 273 +i+ (particle), 47-48, 57-59, 86-87 -ia, 137-38, 263 -ial, 43 Iambic disyllables. See VCV -ian, 263 i-before-e pattern, 220, 229, 267 [-ible, ibil+], 47. See also -able -ic, 34, 65, 115-18, 127, 161, 172-73, 174, 215, 218, 220, 224, 227, 234, 330, 335-36, 340, 347, 353, 364, 365, 366, 382, 419, 427, 432-33, 444-45, 452 -ical, 366 -ication, 366 -icose, 366 -ics, 372 -id, 219, 330, 335-36, 347, 353, 365, 419, 427, 444, 452 -idae, 121, 270 -ide, 272 ie, 95, 157. See also /e/; /i/; /i/ -ier, 318 ier: See /êr/ -ies, 375 ieu. See /yu / iew. See /yu/ -iff, 373-74, 384 -ification, 366 -ify, 276 ii, 81-82 il, 186, 446 -ile, 152, 272 Ill-formed spellings, 26-27 im-, 186, 428 Immediate explicata. See Explicata in- (in), 177, 186-87, 191, 316, 428, 446, 453; en- and (See en-) in- (not), 34, 177, 186-87, 316, 428, 446, 453 -ine, 152-53, 263, 272 -ineae, 270 Inflectional suffixes. See Suffixes -ing, 34, 36, 40, 155, 166, 167, 437 Initial Doublet Rule, 20, 76 Initial particle. See e+ Insulating. See Final e; Final s Rule; Final z Rule; u; v Integration, in orthography, 4, 5-9, 17-20, 40, 69-70, 81-82, 83, 85, 89, 100, 103, 126, 127-28, 129, 170-72, 190, 195-96, 231-32, 356, 361, 362, 367, 407-8, 422, 430. See also Dis-integration; Periphery vs, center -ion, 28, 36, 39, 40, 41-42, 43, 44, 47, 118-19, 129, 132, 224, 262, 263, 347, 353, 365, 416, 419, 422, 432-33, 434, 460 -ionn+, 47 -ior, 262, 263 -ious, 262, 263 -ique, 263 /ir/, 318-19; = ier; 319-20; = ir; 319; spellings of, 319-20; = yr, 319 ir. See /êr/; /ir/; /ur/ ir-, 186, 453 irr. See /êr/ -ise, See -ize -ish1 (forms adjs.), 121, 409 -ish2 (forms verbs), 121-22, 173, 219, 409, 427, 432-33, 444, 452 -ism, 34, 395 -ist, 34, 64; -st coform of, 65 -it, 120, 219, 224, 330, 335-36, 340, 427, 452 -ite, 28, 154, 272 -ition, 119 -itis, 272 -ity, 34, 112-15, 133, 161, 173, 215, 218, 224, 234, 262, 340, 347, 353, 365, 377, 402, 427,
432-33, 444, 452, 460; -ium, 137-38, 264 -ive, 40, 373-74 -ization, 394 -ize, 34, 83, 87, 272; -ise coform of, 65, 83, 272; -ze coform of, 81 J/j/, 47, 206, 208, 407; in clusters and concatenations, 418, 419, 420-21; = d, 407, 417-18, 420; = dg, 417-18, 420; = dj, 417-18; = g, 146-47, 417-18, 419-20, 421; = gg, 351, 417-18; history of, 417-18; = j, 417-18, 420-21; after long vowels, 418, 420; palatalized spelling of, 417-18, 420; after reduced vowels, 418, 420; after short vowels, 418,419,420; and shortening rules, 418; at simple boundaries, 418-19, 420-21; spellings of, 417-21; after vowel digraphs, 418, 420; /zh/ and, 146, 421-22 j, 93, 207, 208, 209, 417-18, 460. See also /j/; /zh/ Jespersen, Otto, xxix, 12, 23, 34, 87-88, 91, 97, 103, 104, 114, 131, 133, 135, 139, 180, 204, 213, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 237, 239, 240, 241, 243, 245, 246, 247, 249, 250, 256, 258, 259, 270, 274, 275, 277, 280, 281, 285, 289, 291, 292, 297, 301, 307, 319, 322, 325, 327, 339, 341, 343, 351, 355, 356, 360, 373, 376, 378, 380, 381, 385, 387, 388, 389, 391, 397, 399, 400, 409, 410, 411, 413, 417, 421, 424, 425, 426, 430, 435, 443 [jogg+, jog],150 Johnson, Samuel, 279, 334, 369, 417 Jones, Darnel, 344 +journ , 186 K/k/, 206, 207, 350, 436, 437, 438; = c, 355-56, 357, 361-62, 363-70, 398, 436; = cc, 356; = cch, 356, 358; = ch, 20, 49-50, 71, 355, 356-58, 436; = ck, 70, 356, 361-62, 368-70; in clusters and concatenations, 366-68; = cq, 360; = cqu, 360; = gh, 361; history of, 355-56; = k, 70, 355-56, 361-65, 366-68, 436; = kg, 361; = kh, 356, 361; = kk, 356; = lk, 356, 360-61; after long vowels, 361, 363; = q, 356, 358-59; = qu, 355, 356, 358, 359- 60; after reduced vowels, 361, 364, 366, 369-70; = sc, 361; after short vowels, 361-62, 363, 365, 368-69; shortening rules and, 361, 365; spellings of, 356-72; word-final, 70; = x, 360 k, 207, See also /k/; k-insertion rule k-insertion rule, 31, 47, 361-62, 368, 370 kal +, 363 Katz, David, 29 /kd/, 75 Kenyon, John, and Thomas Knott, 91, 204-5, 223, 262, 335, 388, 410, 416, 458-59 ker+, 363 Kerek, Andrew, 23 kg, See /k/ kh. See /k/ +khana, 64 Kim, Suksan, 97, 100 kk, 76. See also /k/ kl, 74 klept+, 363 Klima, Edward, 42 kn. See /n/ Knott, Thomas. See Kenyon, John Koffka, Kurt, 29-30 Kohler, Wolfgang, 29 /kr/, 74 /ks/, 74, 370-72 /kt/, 74, 361, 366 Kurath, Hans, 53, 97, 205 /kw/, 10, 106-7, 355, 358-60, 457 kwi + (Indo-European root), 63 kwo+ (Indo-European root), 63, kym+, 363 L/l/, 79-80, 204, 206, 211, 212, 232, 233, 239, 241, 439; in clusters and concatenations, 442,445; at complex boundaries, 166-68, 442, 446; = l, 439, 440-42, 444-46, 447; = ll, 170-71, 440-43, 445, 446-47; = ln, 439, 440; after long vowels, 442, 445-46; after reduced vowels, 442, 447; after short vowels, 441-43, 444-45, 447; shortening rules and, 442, 444-45; at simple boundaries, 170-71; = sl, 439-40; spellings of, 439-47; after vowel digraphs, 442, 445, 446; word-final, 38, 77, 166-68, 440-43, 444 l, 93, 101-2, 207, 439; vs. ll spellings, 166- 68, 440-41. See also /l/; /r/ Labials, before /y Ladefoged, Peter, 74, 206 Langue, 22 Lass, Roger, xxvi; and John Anderson, 100 Laszlo, Ervin, 9 Lax vowels. See Vowel sounds /lb/, 74 ld, 97, 98, 101-2, 258, 268, 271, 275, 280, 285. See also /d/ le#, 149-51. See also VC'C'le [leng+, long], 437 -less, 77, 405, 446 -let, 34 Letters. See Alphabet Levins, Peter, 145 Levitt, Jesse, 23 Lexical simplification, 61 lf, 72. See also /f/ -like, 77, 272 Linell, Per, 52 Linking i and o particles. See Particles Linksz, Arthur, 270 Liquids, 74, 79-80, 211, 298, 348, 439-55. See also /l/; /r/ lk, 101-2. See also /k/ ll, 76, 77, 101-2, 170-71, 264, 459. See also /l/ 1m, 101-2, 424-25 ln. See /l/ +log(ue), 351 Long a. See /a/ Long consonants. See Old English Long e. See /e/ Long i. See /i/ Long o. See /o/ Long u; complex (See /yu/); simple (See /u/) Longest Common String. See Principle of Longest Common String Low back vowels. See /ä/; / Low short o. See /ä/ Low short u. See /u/ lt, 101-2, 285 lv, 380. See also /v/ [ly+, lyse, +Iyte], 64-65 M/m/, 180, 206, 423; = chm, 426; in clusters and concatenations, 427-28; at complex boundaries, 428; before /f/, 180; = gm, 423, 425-26; = 1m, 423, 424-25; after long vowels, 428; = m, 423, 426-28, 429; = mb, 54-55; 72, 423-24; = mh, 426; = mm, 423, 426, 427, 428-29; = mn, 423, 425; = mp, 426; after reduced vowels, 429; after short vowels, 427, 429; shortening rules and, 427; at simple boundaries, 426-27; = sm, 426; spellings of, 423-29; = tm, 426; before v, 180; after vowel digraphs, 428 m, 100, 207. See also /m/ mamm+, 427 [mann+, man], 432 Marchand, Hans, 34 mark+, 363 /mb/, 74 mb, 54-55, 72, 91, 98, 271, 275, 280, 328. See also /m/ McLuhan, Marshall, 21 Meaning and content, 35, 51, 55-56 [medall +, medal], 170 Mediate explicata. See Explicata -ment, 79, 434 Merging, 55, 59-60, 61-63, 109, 236, 295, 449 mess+, 402 [metall +, metal], 38, 39 Metathesis, 225, 389, 458-59 mho. See /m/ Miege, Guy, 145, 421 Minims, 108, 245-47 Minimum and maximum simplicities, in orthography, 29-30, 31 mis-, 79 [+miss, +mit], 39, 45-46, 56, 402 Mixed convergence, 196-97, 216, 221, 229, 230, 270, 275, 334, 357, 358, 389, 449, 457 Mixed Voicing Rule, .73-76, 193, 195, 370-72 mm, 76. See also /m/ mn. See /m/; /n/ mon+, 49 Monaghan, E. J., 132 Morphemes, vs. elements, 33 Morphophones, 202-6, 307 Mossé, Fernand, 97, 100, 133, 207, 258, 271 mp. See /m/ mps, 72 Mulcaster, Richard, 3-4, 5, 8, 13-14, 17, 30, 31, 103, 145, 203, 208-9, 463 N/n/, 206, 232, 423, 429; = cn, 431-32; in clusters and concatenations, 433; at complex boundaries, 15, 433-34; = gn, 20, 72, 429, 430-31; = kn, 429-30; after long vowels, 430-31, 433; = mn, 429, 431; = n, 429,432-33,434-35; = ng, 432; = nn, 429, 433-35; = pn, 429, 431; after reduced vowels, 20, 28, 434-35; after short vowels, 432-33, 434; shortening rules and, 432-33; at simple boundaries, 432; spellings of, 429-35; after vowel digraphs, 433 n, 100, 207. See also /n/ Nasals, 74, 423-38. See also /m/; /n/; /ng/ /nd/, 74 nd, 97, 98, 102, 268, 271, 275 Negative feedback. See Feedback neo-, 260 -ness, 79, 405, 433-34 Nessly, Larry, 52 neur+, 321 Newman, Stanley, 112 Ney, James, xxviii /ng/ (eng), 10, 70, 206, 353, 423; history of, 435; = m, 436; = n, 10,435-37; = ng, 10, 435, 437-38; spellings of, 436-38 ng, 353, 432. See also /ng/ /ngg/, 74, 435 nn, 76. See also /n/ [noi+, +noy], 303 Nonterminative elements. See Elements Nonterminative suffixes. See Suffixes Norman scribes, 13-14, 108, 208-10, 355, 358, 373, 383, 391, 408, 413, 457, 458 O/ /o/, 203; = au, 281, 286; = eau, 281, 286; = eo, 287; = ew, 286-87; history of, 280-81; = o, 280-83; = oa, 280, 281, 284; = oh, 286; = oo, 286; = ou, 281, 285-86; = ough, 281, 286; = ow, 281, 284-85; spellings of, 281-87; VCC and, 101-2, 104, 283, 446; Ve# and, 281; VClV and, 283; VCV and, 281; V.V and, 281; word-final, 282-83 o, 207. See also /ä/; /a o- (assimilated form of ob-), 195, 196 +o+ (linking particle), 33, 47-48, 49 oa. See / oar: See /ô/ ob-, 177, 195-96, 336, 356, 372, 383 oc-, 195, 356, 372 -ock, 369-70 oe, 95, 158. See also /e/; /o/; /u/ -oecia, 270 of-, 195, 383 og. See ogue og-, 195 ogue, 238-39 oh. See 161 / oi. See / -oid, 302 Old English: long consonants in, 97; Third Syllable Rule in, 133. See also Vowel lengthening and shortening omni-, 34 O'Neill, Wayne, 205 Ong, Walter, 17, 461, 462 Onions, C. T., 19 oo, 299. See also /o/; /u/; / oor. See /ôr/ / op-, 195, 336 Open syllables. See Vowel lengthening and shortening /ôr/ field, 204, 454; = aor; 315; = ar; 313, 314; = arr; 313; = aur: 315; = ear: 315; = er; 315; = oar; 314; = oor; 315; = or; 311-13; = orr; 311-12; = our; 314-15; spellings of, 311-15; /wôr/ = war; 313 or. See /ôr/ -or, 54. See also -er Orm, 97, 341, 381 orr. See /ôr/ Orthographic concepts, 52-55 -os+, 47 Oswalt, Robert, xxv, 4, 91, 96, 135, 140 ou, 81. See /a ough, See /f/; /o/; /u/ our. See /ôr/; /ur/; / -our, 54 -ous, 47, 59 ow, 81, 212, 303-5, See also /ä/; /a P/p/, 201, 206, 327-28; = bp, 334-35; in clusters and concatenations, 336; at complex boundaries, 336-37; = gh, 334; after long vowels, 336; = p, 327-28, 333, 335-36, 337; = ph, 334; = pp, 327-28, 333-34, 335, 336-37; after reduced vowels, 337; after short vowels, 335-37; shortening rules and, 335-36; at simple boundaries, 335; spellings of, 333-37; after vowel digraphs, 336 p, 207, 425, 426. See also /p/ [+pair; pare], 26-27 Palatal sibilants, 407-22. See also /ch/; /j/; /sh/; /zh/ Palatalization,. 23, 44, 47, 58, 407. See also /ch/; /j/; /sh/; /zh/ para-, 64 [parcell +, parcel], 171 Parole, 22 Parsons, Talcott, 9 Partial assimilation. See Assimilation Particles, 32, 33, 47-49, 56-59; initial, 48-49; linking, 47-48, 234-35; nontactical, 47. See also Etymological demand; +i+; k-insertion rule; +o+; Palatalization; Phonetic demand; Twinning Rule Partridge, Eric, 34, 48, 50, 149, 179, 195, 266, 437 Pattern and regularity, 4, 5-12, 14-20, 24, 25-26, 27-31, 32, 39-40, 41, 62-63, 69-70, 82-87, 91, 112, 123-24, 161-62, 168-70, 439, 440-41; subelemental and subsyllabic, 62-63. See also Rules and ruliness; Strings; Tactics and tactical rules; VCC; VCV; etc. pb. See /b/ +peat, 57 [pencill+, pencil], 171 [penn+, pen], 171, 432 Pennant, 19 Penzl, Herbert, 355 Performance. See Code Periphery vs. center, in orthography, 6-7, 17-20, 40, 81-82, 85, 100, 126, 127-28. See also Integration Perrin, Porter, 179 Persistent long u. See /u/ [personn+, person], 172, 174 +pete, 28, 37, 38 ph, 71, 111, 210. See also /f/ +phile, 379 +phobe, 379 Phonemes, 11, 201-3, 207 Phonemic spelling, 3-4, 13-14, 201-3 Phones, 11, 201 Phonetic demand, 12-20, 47, 461-62 Phonetic spelling, 3-4, 13-14, 201-3 Phonotactics, 69. See also Tactics and tactical rules. phot +, 379 phth. See /t/; /th/ phys+, 379 [pistill +, pistil], 171 +piter. See [+pter; +piter] pleur+, 321 [plumm +, plumb], 427 pn. See /n/ pneum+, 431 Position, in Latin, 99-100 Positive feedback. See Feedback pp, 76. See also /p/ pph. See /f/ pre-, 262 Preemption, 12, 14-17, 113, 114, 115, 117, 120-21, 131-33, 134-38, 139-41, 155, 172-73, 174-75, 183, 291. See also Holdouts Preferred regularity. See Principle of Preferred Regularity Prefixes, 32-34, 35, 36, 48, 57, 105, 177-98 Primes, 36-37, 140-41 Principle of Preferred Regularity, 25-26, 147, 157, 166-67, 168, 170, 218, 441 Principle of Longest Common String, 57 Prins, A. A., xxix, 213, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222, 231, 233, 240, 245, 247, 250, 259, 271, 280, 285, 289, 297, 301, 307, 322, 327, 351, 373, 378, 385, 388, 409, 443 pro-, 36, 46 Processes and procedural rules, 9-10, 32. See also Assimilation; Final e deletion; Palatalization; Simple addition; Twinning Rule ps. See /s/ psamm +, 399 pseud +, 399 psil+, 399 psor+, 399 psych+, 399 psychr+, 399 /pt/, 74 pt. See /t/ [+pter; +piter], 19, 192 Qq, 207, 208, 356, 457. See also /k/; qu qu, 10, 95, 106-7, 355, 356, 437, 457. See also q questionn+, 174 R/r/, 79-80, 204, 206, 211, 232, 439; in clusters and concatenations, 450, 452-53; at complex boundaries, 450, 453; = l, 449; after long vowels, 450, 453; = r, 447-48, 450-53, 454-55; after reduced vowels, 322, 451, 454-55; = rh, 20, 71-72, 76, 447, 448-49; = rps, 449; = rr, 447-48, 450-51, 452, 453-54; = rrh, 76, 449, 451; after short vowels, 450-52, 454; shortening rules and, 450, 451-52; spellings of, 447-55; after vowel digraphs, 450, 453; = wr, 447=48 r, 207. See also /r/ [raill+, rail], 172 Rapaport, Anatol, 9 Rask, R. K., 97
/r/-colored vowels, 307-26 re-, 33, 177, 262 're, 315 Read, Charles, 32 Reduced vowels, xxvi, 83, 90-91, 168, 203; /i/ and, 222-23; vs. /u/, 241, 242. See also individual consonant sounds Registers, 20, 38, 171, 197 Regularity, in orthography. See Pattern and regularity; Rules and ruliness /rg/, 74 rh, 76, 212. See also /r/ Roberts, A. Hood, 72 Roman alphabet, 207-9 rps. See /r/ rr, 76. See also /r/ rrh, 76, 212. See also /r/ +rrhage, 76 +rrhagia, 76 +rrhagic, 76 +rrhagy, 76 +rrhaphy, 76 +rrhea, 76 +rrheuma, 76 +rrhexis, 76 +rrhinia, 76 Rudorf, Erwin H. Jr. See Hanna Rule of Syllabicity, 59-60, 65, 449 Rules and ruliness, 4, 9-10, 24, 25-26, 29- 31, 38, 42-44, 51-52, 56-59, 91, 112, 159-60, 161-62. See also Flap Rule; Processes and procedural rules; Rule of Syllabicity; Tactics and tactical rules Runes, 209; ash (æ), 209, 213, 259; edh (ð), 209, 210, 384; ligature (œ), 258; thorn, 209, 210, 384; wen, 208, 209; yogh, 97, 209, 459-60 S/s/, 146, 201, 202, 206; = c, 146, 397, 400, 405-6; in clusters and concatenations, 16, 400,402,406; at complex boundaries, 400, 403-4; = cs, 400; history of, 397; after long vowels, 400, 403; = ps, 397, 399; after reduced vowels, 401, 404-5; = s, 16, 397,400-405; = sc, 397-98; = sch, 397, 400; after short vowels, 400, 401, 402, 404; shortening rules and, 400, 402; at simple boundaries, 400, 401-2; spellings of, 397-405; = ss, 397, 400- 402, 403-5; = st, 380, 397, 399-400; = sth, 391, 397, 400; = sw, 397, 400; after vowel digraphs, 400, 402-3; = z, 84, 397, 399 s, 93, 207, 208-9; word-final, and final e, 82, 148, 394-95, 401, 404-5. See also /s/; /sh/; /z/; /zh/ [-s, -es], 15, 33, 34, 39, 40, 59-60, 75, 80, 82, 395 -s', -'s, 34, 395 [sacc+, sac], 171,356 saf+, 383 Saljapina, Z., and V. Sevoroskin, xxvii Samuels, Michael, 14, 23 Sapir, Edward, 16 [satch+, sack], 414 Saussure, Ferdinand de, 16, 22 sc. See /k/; /s/; /sh/ sch. See /s/; /sh/ schsch. See /sh/ Schwa. See Reduced vowels sci+, 411-12 Scragg, D.G., 389 Scribes. See Norman scribes se-, 262 Self-regulation and self-reorganization, 5-9, 31, 40, 461 Semantic content. See Meaning and content Semantic demand, 12-13, 14-17, 461-62 semi-, 262, 263 Semivowels, 74, 211, 456-60. See also /w/; /y/ -sen, 302-3 Sets and coforms, 33, 38, 39-47, 58-59, 177, 462 /sh/, 44, 47, 206, 407; = c, 407, 409-10, 412; = ch, 407-8; vs. /ch/, 410-11, 412, 415-16; palatalized spellings of, 44, 407; = s, 407, 409-11; = sc, 407, 409-10, 411-12; = sch, 407-8; = schsch, 408; = sh, 407, 408-9; spellings of, 44, 407-10; = ss, 407, 409-10, 411; = t, 407, 409-10; = x, 407, 409-10; vs. /zh/, 410 sh, 71, 111, 210, 212. See also /sh/ Shakespeare, William, 21 -ship, 409 Short a. See /a/ Short e. See /e/ Short i. See /i/
Short o, 53, 203, 204-6, 231-40. See also /ä/; / Short u, 53, 203, 204. See also /u/; / Short vowels. See Vowel sounds; and individual consonant and vowel sounds Short Word Rule, 76, 87-89, 148, 236, 276, 279, 340, 352, 401, 451 Shortening rules, 112. See also Stress Frontshift Rule; Suffix rules; Third Syllable Rule Sibbald, 19 Sibilants. See Palatal sibilants Silent final e. See Final e Silent letters, 54-55, 328, 337-38, 343-46, 352, 389-90, 423-24 Silent reading, vs. reading aloud, 21-22 simil+, 177 Simple addition, 12, 65, 80, 100, 140, 155, 156, 157-58, 162-68, 170-72, 174-75, 178, 180, 182, 183, 185-87, 189, 190, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197,198, 229, 260-61, 262, 273, 281, 398, 418. See also Duplicative addition Simple boundaries, 56-59, 329. See also individual consonant sounds Simple fricatives, 373-406. See also /f/; /h/; /s/; /th/; /th/; /v/; /z/ Simple long u. See /u/ Simplicity, in orthography. See Minimum and maximum simplicities; Unity -sis, 64-65 sk, 74, 361, 362, 363 Skeat, Walter, 18, 50, 61 Skousen, Royal, 23 sl. See /l/ /sm/, 74 sm. See /m/ Smith, Henry Lee, xxxi, 202, 205, 307 Smith, Philip, and R. G. Baker, 23, 32 Smith, Thomas, 3 /sn/, 74 [snugg +, snug], 150 Soft c. See c Soft g. See g son+, 432 sonn+, 432 soph+, 379 Sounds, American English, 201-6; distinctive-feature analysis of, 211-12. See also Consonant sounds; Vowel sounds /sp/, 74 Speech, vs. writing, 14-17, 21-22 Spelling process, 49-50 Spelling pronunciations, 22-24 Spelling reform, 30 Spellings: accepted, unaccepted, unrecorded, 27-29, 30; well- and ill- formed, 26-27. See also Variant spellings spr, 72 ss, 76, 82, 104. See also /s/; /sh/; /z/ sse, 76 /st/, 74 st, 104, 264, 265, 267, 268, 380, 416, See also /s/ -st. See -ist Standardized spelling, rise of, 8, 21-22, 24 Status words, and adaption, 20 Stems, 35-37, 162-68. See also Primes -ster; 303 sth. See /s/ +stice, 59 stit+, 59 Stops, 206, 327-49, 350-72. See also /b/; /d/; /g/; /k/; /p/; /t/ Strang, Barbara, 97 [streng+, strong], 437 Stress, 49; and de-stressing, 151-54; noun-verb stress pairs, 168; in strings, 90-93, 94, 127-28; and suffix rules, 112-13, 115-18, 120-21, 133; and twinning, 161, 162, 164, 165-74 Stress Frontshift Rule, 112, 127-28, 214-15, 218, 224, 234, 244-45, 246, 330, 335, 340, 347, 353, 365, 377, 393, 395, 419, 427, 432, 444, 445, 452; holdouts to, 129-30 Strings, 90-91; /r/-colored vowels and, 307-8; VCe (See VCV, and final e). See also VC#; VCC; VC'C'le; etc. Stubbs, Michael, xxv, 4, 17, 23, 462 su-, 184 sub-, 34, 57, 78-79, 177, 183-86, 245, 336, 341, 356, 372, 383, 453 Subelemental and subsyllabic patterning. See Pattern and regularity suc-, 183, 356, 372 sud-, 341 suf-, 183, 383 Suffix rules, 112-22, 127; twinning and, 161, 172-73. See also -ic; -id; -ion; -ish2; -it; -ity; -ule Suffixes, 32-33, 34-35, 36, 57-59, 112-22; derivational and inflectional, 34-35; non- terminative, 46-47. See also individual suffixes sug-, 183 sum-, 183 [summ+, sum], 427 [sumpt+, +sume], 36, 37, 39-41 sup-, 183, 336 super-, 34, 184 sur- (assimilated form of sub-), 183-84, 453 sur- (over, above), 184, 324 sus-, 184 /sw/, 74, 457, 458 sw. See /s/ sy-, 198 syl-, 198 Syllabic l. See / Syllabicity. See Rule of Syllabicity Syllables: elements and, 59-60; boundaries for, 59-60, 61-63, 71-72 sym-, 198, 428 syn-, 177, 197-98, 428 Systems and systematicity, xxv, 4, 5-9, 12-13, 30-31, 155, 159-60, 461 T/t/, 206, 327-28; = bt, 17-18, 342, 344; = cht, 342, 346; in clusters and concatenations, 348; at complex boundaries, 349; = ct, 342, 345; = dt, 342, 345; = ed, 342, 343; flapped, 342-43; = ght, 345-46; after long vowels, 348; = phth, 346; = pt, 342, 344-45; after reduced vowels, 349; after short vowels, 347-48, 349; shortening rules and, 347-48; at simple boundaries, 346-47; spellings of, 342-49; = t, 327-28, 342, 346-48, 349; = th, 342, 343; = tt, 327-28, 342, 346, 349; = tw, 342, 346; after vowel digraphs, 348 t, 207; in Latinate verbs, 61-62. See also /sh/; /t/; zh/ -t (verb suffix), 7 +tach, 413 Tactics and tactical rules, 9, 69-141; /r/-colored vowels and, 307-8. See also Consonant sequence rules; Distribution rules; Shortening rules; Strings; Vowel Doublet Rule [tann+, tan], 171 tch, 72, 77, 210. See also /ch/ techn+, 358 Tense vowels. See Vowel sounds Terminative elements. See Elements [terr+1, +ter1] (earth), 172 [terr+2, +ter2] (fright), 172 /th/, 147, 206; = chth, 385; in clusters and concatenations, 385; history of, 384-85; = phth, 385; spellings of, 385-86; = th, 385; = tth, 385 /th/, 206, 384; = th, 147, 385-86 th, 62-63, 71, 108-10, 147, 209, 210, 212. See also /t/; /th/; /th / theor+, 37 Thesaurarium Trilingue Publicum, 89 Third Syllable Rule, 112, 129, 131-41, 175, 239, 291, 330, 333, 335, 340, 347, 353, 365, 377, 382, 395, 402, 414, 419, 427, 432, 444, 445, 452; conservative analogy in, 139-41; in Latinate disyllables, 138-39, 227, 234; in Old English, 133, 225, 226, 235; preemptors of, 134-38; short vowels and, 214, 218, 224, 227, 234, 239, 245, 246; VCVV and, 135-38; V.V and, 135 Thorn. See Runes Tight clusters. See Consonant clusters tm. See /m/ [tonsill+, tonsil], 161, 171 Trager, George, xxxi trans-, 34, 78 Triplet Rule, 77, 158, 383, 396, 447 Trochaic disyllables. See VCV tsch. See /ch/ /tsh/, 407, 416 tt. 72, 76. See also /t/ tth. See /th/ /tw/, 74 tw, See /t/ Twinning Rule, 9, 15, 25, 26, 31, 38, 47, 76, 96, 140, 150, 161-76, 212, 332, 337, 341, 349, 354, 375, 383, 393-94, 400, 403, 428, 433, 442, 446, 450, 453; American vs. British, 167-68; final l and, 440; holdouts to, 174-76; nonterminative bases and, 170-72; stress and, 162, 164, 165-70, 173-74; suffix rules and, 161, 172-73; VCC and, 162 U/u/, 203, 204; = o, 245-47; = oo, 247; = ou, 247-48; spellings of, 244-48; = u, 244-45; in VC#, 244, 245, 246; in VCC, 244, 245, 246; in shortened VCV, 244-45, 246-47 / /u/, 203, 211; = eu, 295-96; = ew, 295; history of, 288-89; = o, 288, 291-92; = oe, 293; = oo, 288, 289-90, 291; = ou, 288- 89, 293-95; = ough, 294; persistent, 105, 114-15, 118, 120, 122, 124, 134-35; spellings of, 289-96; Third Syllable Rule and, 291; = u, 288-89, 290-91; = uh, 296; = ui, 296; = uo, 296; VCV and, 289-90; Ve# and, 290-91; V.V and, 291; = w, 296; and /yu/, 297 u, 136, 207, 208, 211, 212, 245-46, 459; insulating, 229, 350-51; and v, 81, 208; word-final, and
final e, 20, 95-96, 147, 350-51. See also /e/; /i/; /u/; / ue, 95-96, 157 ugh. See /yu/ uh. See /u/ ui. See /i/; /u/; /yu/ -ule, 122, 330, 353, 365 -urn, 64 un-, 34, 36, 177, 245 Unaccepted spellings, 27-29 Unigraphs, 90 Unintegrated elements. See Integration; Periphery vs. center Unity, in orthography, 10-13, 41, 45-46, 139-40, 159-60. See also Conservative analogy; Variety Unrecorded spellings, 27-29 uo. See /u/ uor. See / uoy. See / /ur/ convergence, 454; = ear, 325; = er, 323; = eur, 326; history of, 321-22; = ir, 324; = irr, 324; = our, 325; spellings of, 323-26; = ur, 324; = urr, 324; /wur/ = wor, 323; = yr, 326; = yrr, 326 / ur. See /âr/; /ur/; / -ure, 153-54, 242, 266 uu, 81 V/v/, 180, 206, 207-8, 246; in clusters, 376; and /f/, 373-74; = f, 373-74, 376; history of, 373-75; after long vowels, 376; = lv, 376, 380; spellings of, 375-77; after reduced vowels, 377; after short vowels, 376, 377; shortening rules and, 377; = v, 373-75, 376-77; = vv, 375-76 v, 93, 207, 208, 373-77; vs. u, 208, 246; in VCV, 128-29, 218-19, 225, 234; word-final, and final e, 147, 375. See also /v/ Vachek, Josef, 6, 17, 207 Variant spellings, 21-22, 25-26; c and s, 406; f and ph, 379; l vs. ll, 439, 440-41; r vs. rr; 450 Variety, in orthography, 10-11, 13-14, 140. See also Unity VC# string, 93-94, 97, 140, 162, 163, 165, 172-73, 174, 176, 214, 218, 224, 227, 233, 234, 244, 245, 246, 261, 264, 369, 381, 401 VCC string, 31, 47, 88, 90, 96-98, 100-107, 112, 113, 121-22, 140, 162, 214, 217-18, 223, 226-27, 233, 239, 242, 244, 245, 246, 328-30, 332, 337, 341-42, 349, 354, 368, 383, 394, 396, 404, 413, 415, 420, 429, 434, 447, 454; holdouts to, 101-7, 262, 271, 283; vs. VCV, 96-98, 99, 129, 150, 162. See also "in clusters and concatenations," under individual consonant sounds VC'C'le string, 80, 106, 329, 331, 333, 337, 342, 349, 355, 361, 368-69, 380, 384, 394, 400, 401, 404. See also le# VCe# string. See VCV, and final e VCle string, 105-6, 251-52, 274-75, 277, 283, 299, 368-69 VCrV string, 106, 251-52, 261, 274-75, 277, 283, 299 VCV string, 90, 96-98, 107-11, 112-15, 123-30, 140, 141, 162, 307; and final e, 107-8, 145, 148-49, 151-54, 159-60; in iambic disyllables, 123; with long head vowels, 114-15, 118-19, 120, 122, 123-26, 129-30, 134-38, 140-41, 145, 151-53, 154-57, 251, 253-54, 260, 263, 264, 272, 276-77, 281, 289-90, 299 (See also individual consonant sounds); with short head vowels, 69, 112-14, 115-16, 118-19, 120-22, 127-30, 131-33, 138-39, 146, 147, 151-54, 214-15, 218-19, 224-26, 227, 233, 234-35, 242-43, 244-45, 246-47 (See also individual consonant sounds); in trochaic disyllables, 123-26, 127-30; v in (See v). See also VCC VCVV string, 119, 135-38 Ve# string, 94-96, 145, 157-58, 273, 281, 290-91, 299 Velar fricative, in Old English, 209, 247-48, 255, 271, 274, 278, 286, 294, 345. See also gh Velar stops. See /g/; /k/ Velars, before /y velle+, 38 Venezky, Richard, xxv, xxvii, 4, 17, 30, 53, 71, 205, 307, 316, 409 Visual bias, growth of, 13, 21-24 [voc+, +voke], 363-64 Voiced and voiceless consonants, 73-74, 327 Vowel digraphs. See individual vowel digraphs and individual consonants Vowel Doublet Rule, 81-82, 86 Vowel lengthening and shortening, 97-98, 125-26, 258-59, 271, 275, 280 Vowel letters, 210-12. See also individual vowel letters Vowel sequence rules, 81-82. See also Vowel Doublet Rule Vowel sounds, American English, 74, 203-6, 210-12; free and checked, 53, 205; head, 90; lax and tense, 53, 205-6; low back, 204-6, 231-40; /r/-colored, 307-26; short and long, 53, 97-98, 203, 219. See also individual consonant and vowel sounds Vowel unigraphs, 90 Vowels, vs. Consonants, 210-12, 426, 459 vv, 76. See also /v/ V.V string, 91-93, 115, 118, 135, 140, 242-43, 252, 254, 260-61, 262-64, 272-73, 277, 281, 291, 299 W/w/, 206, 208, 211, 212, 232, 233, 239, 313, 400; = hu, 456; = ju, 456; = o, 456; = au, 456; spellings of, 456-59; = u, 456, 457; = w, 456, 458-59; = wh, 71- 72, 458-59 w, 81, 207, 208, 212, 296. See also /w/ Walker, J., 104 war. See /ôr/ -ward, 236 Watkins, Calvert, 346 Watt, Ian, 462 Webster, Noah, 132, 213, 370 Weir, Ruth, 4 Well-formed spellings, 26-27 Wen. See Runes werg- (Indo-European root), 448 wergh- (Indo-European root), 448 werp- (Indo-European root), 448 Wertheimer, Max, 29 West Germanic gemination, 100 wh, 62-63, 71-72, 212. See also /h/; /w/ Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 72 -wise, 272 /wôr/. See /ôr/ wor. See /ur/ Word-final doublets, 76-77 Word-initial doublets, 76 wr, 212. See also /r/ wreg- (Indo-European root), 448 wreik- (Indo-European root), 448 wreit- (Indo-European root), 448 Writing: public uses of, 24; vs. speech, 16-17, 21-22, 461 Written Standard English, 14, 21-22, 23-24, 203 wrizd- (Indo-European root), 448 /wur/. See /ur/ Xx, 74, 89, 100, 163, 207, 351-52, 370-71, 436-37. See also /g/; /k/; /sh/; /z/ Y/y/, 206, 211, 212, 456; = e, 459; = i, 459- 60; = j, 460; = ll, 459; spellings of, 459-60; = y, 459; = z, 459-60 y, 207, 208, 211, 212, 226-27. See also /e/; /i/; /y/ -y, 157, 262, 373,.375 y-to-i tactics, 37, 58, 65, 84-87, 157, 208, 262-63, 273, 277, 278. See also i ye, 96 -yer, 459 Yogh. See Runes yr. See /ur/ yrr. See /ur/ /y /yu/, 203, 288, 297-99; = eau, 300; = eu, 300; = ew, 299; history of, 297; = ieu, 300; = iew, 300; spellings of, 299-300; vs. /u/, 297-99; = u, 299; = ugh, 300; = ui, 300; VCC and, 299; in VCle and VCr; 299; VCV and, 299; Ve# and, 299; V.V and, 299 /y Z/z/, 202, 206; in clusters, 15, 394, 393, 395; at complex boundaries, 392, 393-94; = cz. 391; history of, 391; after long vowels, 392, 393, 396; after reduced vowels, 392, 394, 396; = s, 15, 16, 391- 92, 394-97; after short vowels, 392, 393, 394, 395; and shortening rules, 392, 393, 394. 395; at simple boundaries, 392, 393, 395; spellings of, 391-97; = ss. 391-92, 394-96; = sth, 391; = ts, 391; = tz. 391; after vowel digraphs, 392, 393, 396; word-final, 392, 394-95; = x, 391; = z, 391-94, 396-97; = zz, 391-92, 393-94 z, 93, 100, 207, 208, 391-94, 459-60; word-final, and final e, 83-84, 148, 392. See also /z/ -ze. See -ize Zettersten, Arne, 72 /zh/, 44, 206, 407; = g, 146, 422; history of, 421-22; = j, 422; vs. /j/, 146, 421-22; palatalized spellings of, 44, 422; = s, 422; vs. /sh/, 410; spellings of, 422; = t, 422; = z, 422 zz, 76, 83-84. See also /z/
Cummings, D. W.
American English Spelling: An Informal Description, pp. xxv-xxix, vii-xxiv, 539-555. © 1988 [Copyright Holder]. Reproduced with permission of The Johns Hopkins
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